Anatomy of the Human Diaphragm

Diaphragm

A diaphragm, diaphragma, represents a plane thin muscle, m. phrenicus, domed curved, covered with top and bottom fascia and serous membranes. Muscular fibers, starting from the whole circumference of the lower aperture of the chest, pass into the tendon stretch occupying the middle of the diaphragm, centrum tendineum.

At the site of the fibers' retraction, the lumbar, rib and sternal parts are distinguished in the muscular part of the medulla block.

[caption id="attachment_679" align="aligncenter" width="500"] diaphragm[/caption]

Lumbar part, pars lumbalis, consists of two parts (legs) - the right and left, crus dextrum et sinistrum. Both legs of the diaphragm leave a triangular space between them and the vertebral column, hiatus aorticus, through which passes the aorta with the ductus thoracicus lying behind it. The edge of this hole is bordered by a tendon strip, so that the contraction of the diaphragm does not affect the aortic lumen. Climbing up, the legs of the diaphragm meet with each other in front of the aortic opening and then slightly to the left and up from it again diverge, forming a hole, hiatus esophageus, through which pass the esophagus and accompanying it both nn. vagi. Hiatus esophageus is bordered by muscle beams, playing the role of pulp that regulates the progress of food. Between the muscle beams of each of the legs of the diaphragm, slots are formed through which nn pass. splanchnici, v. azygos (on the left v. hemiazygos) and the sympathetic trunk. The costal part, pars costalis, starting from the cartilages of VII-XII ribs, goes back to the tendon center.

Sternal part, pars sternalis, departs from the posterior surface of the xiphoid process of the sternum to the tendon center. Between pars sternalis and pars costalis near the sternum there is a paired triangular slit, trigonum sternocostalis, through which the lower end of the a penetrates. thoracica interna (a. epigastrica superior). Another large-sized pair gap, the lumbocostalis trigonum, is between pars costalis and lumbalis pars. This gap, corresponding to the existing communication in the embryonal life between the thoracic and abdominal cavity, is covered on top by the pleura and fascia endothoracica, and from below - fascia subperitonealis, retroperitoneal tissue and peritoneum. Through it can pass the so-called diaphragmatic hernia. Somewhat back and to the right of the middle line in the tendon center is a quadrangular opening, foramen venae cdvae, through which passes the inferior vena cava. As indicated,

Function of diaphragm

The diaphragm shrinks when inhaled, its dome flattened, and it descends. Due to the lowering of the diaphragm, the chest cavity is enlarged in the vertical direction, which takes place during inspiration.

Innervation. C3-C5. N. phrenicus, VII-XII nn. intercostales, plexus Solaris.

To which doctors to consult for examination of the diaphragm:

Surgeon

What diseases are associated with the diaphragm:

• Damage (injury) of the diaphragm


• Diaphragmatic hernia


• Hernias of the esophageal opening of the diaphragm


• Relaxation of the diaphragm

What tests and diagnostics should be done for the diaphragm:

X-ray of the thoracic cavity organs

Anatomy of the human larynx

Larynx

The larynx, larynx, is placed on the level of the IV, V and VI cervical vertebrae, immediately below the hyoid bone, on the front side of the neck, forming here an elevation clearly visible through the outer covers. Behind her lies the pharynx, from which the larynx is in direct communication by means of a hole called the entrance to the larynx, aditus laryngis.

On the sides of the larynx pass the large blood vessels of the neck, and in front the larynx is covered with muscles that are below the hyoid bone (mm. Sternohyoidei, sternothyroidei, omohyoidei), the cervical fascia and the upper parts of the lateral lobes of the thyroid gland. At the bottom of the larynx passes into the trachea. Cartilaginous frame of the larynx is formed by nine hyaline cartilages, 3 of which are unpaired (epiglottis, cricoid and thyroid) and 3 paired (wedge-shaped, coroniform, arytenoid).

The human larynx- this is an amazing musical instrument, representing, as it were, a combination of wind and string instruments. Exhaled through the larynx, the air causes vibration of the vocal cords, stretched like strings, resulting in a sound. Unlike musical instruments in the larynx, both the degree of tension of the strings and the size and shape of the cavity in which the air circulates vary, which is achieved by contraction of the muscles of the oral cavity, tongue, throat and larynx itself, controlled by the nervous system.

This man differs from anthropoids, which are absolutely unable to regulate the jet of exhaled air, which is necessary for singing and speaking. Only the gibbon can to a certain extent be able to make with its voice musical sounds ("gamma gibbona"). In addition, the monkeys have pronounced "voice bags", continuing under the skin and serving as resonators. In humans, they are rudimentary formations (laryngeal ventricles).

It took thousands of years to gradually transform the modulated larynx of the monkey into a human larynx and "mouth organs gradually learned to pronounce one articulate sound after another." 

Being a kind of musical instrument, the larynx is also constructed according to the principle of the movement apparatus, therefore it is possible to distinguish between the skeleton in the form of cartilages, their joints and ligaments and muscles, the moving cartilages, as a result of which the size of the glottis and the degree of tension of the vocal cords change. so that by gradually increasing modulations the undeveloped larynx of a monkey transformed into a person's larynx and "mouth organs gradually learned to pronounce one articulate sound after another." 

 

Cartilages of the larynx.

The cricoid cartilage, cricoidea, hyaline, has the shape of a ring consisting of a wide plate, lamina, behind and arc, arcus, front and sides. On the edge of the plate and on its lateral surface there are joint articulations for articulation with arytenoid and thyroid cartilages.

Thyroid cartilage, cartilage thyroidea , the largest of the cartilages of the larynx, hyaline, consists of two laminae, laminae, anteriorly fused at an angle. In children and women, these plates converge roundly, so they do not have such an angular protuberance as in adult men (Adam's apple). On the upper edge of the middle line there is a notch - incisura thyroidea superior. The posterior thickened edge of each plate extends into the upper horn, cornu superius, greater, and the lower horn, cornu inferius, shorter; The latter on the top from the inside has a platform for articulation with cricoid cartilage. On the outer surface of each plate of the thyroid cartilage, an oblique line is visible, the linea obliqua (attachment site of M. sternothyroideus and M. thyrohyoideus).

The arytenoid cartilages, cartilagines arytenoideae , are directly related to the vocal cords and muscles. They resemble pyramids, the bases of which, the basis, are located on the upper edge of the lamina cricoidea, and the apex, the apex, is directed upwards. Anterolateral surface is the most extensive.

At the base are two processes:

• the front (from the elastic cartilage) serves as the place of attachment of the vocal cords and is therefore called processus vocalis (voice),


• lateral (from hyaline cartilage) for the attachment of muscles, processus muscularis.

In the thickness of plica aryepiglottica there are carobs cartilagines, cartilagines corniculatae (on the tops of arytenoid cartilages) and anterior to them are wedge-shaped cartilagines cuneiformes. Epiglottis cartilage, epiglottis s. cartilago epiglottica, is a leaf-shaped plate of elastic cartilaginous tissue, placed in front of the aditus laryngis and directly behind the base of the tongue. To the knee it narrows, forming a stalk of the epiglottis, petiolus epiglottitis The opposite broad end points upward. The convex-concave dorsal surface facing the larynx is covered all over the mucosa; the lower convex portion will stand back into the laryngeal cavity and is called tuhercullum epiglotticum. The anterior, or ventral, surface facing the tongue is free from attachment of the ligaments only in the upper part.

Ligaments and articulations of the larynx.The larynx is suspended from the hypoglossal bone with the help of the membrana thyrohyoidea, stretched between it and the upper edge of the thyroid cartilage, consisting of the non-adnate ligament, iig. thymhyoideum medidnum, and paired ligaments, ligg. thyrohyoidea lateralia, stretched between the ends of the large horn of the hyoid bone and the upper horns of the thyroid cartilage, in the thickness of which a small grain-shaped cartilage, cartilago tritkea, is palpated. The epiglottis is also connected to the hyoid bone, which is connected to it by a lig. hyoepiglotticum and with thyroid cartilage lig. thyroepiglotticum.

Between the arch of the cricoid cartilage and the edge of the thyroid extends a strong ligamentous ligament along the middle line. cricothyroideum, consisting of elastic fibers. The lateral fibers of this ligament, starting from the upper edge of the cricoid cartilage, diverge medially and connect posteriorly with the cartilago arythenoidea; these bundles together with lig. cricothyroideum form a tapering upward conus elasticus, the upper free edge of which represents the vocal cords. Lig. vocale, vocal cords, front attached to the angle of the thyroid cartilage in close proximity to the same ligament of the opposite side, posterior to the processus vocalis of the arytenoid cartilage. The bunch consists of elastic fibers of a yellowish color that run parallel to each other.

Children and young men also have crossed elastic fibers, which in adults disappear. The medial margin of the vocal cords is pointed and free, laterally and the ligament directly passes into the conus elasticus. Above the voice ligament and parallel to it lies a pair of ligament plexus, lig. vestibulare. It is named so because it limits the threshold of the larynx from below. cricothyroideum form a tapering upward conus elasticus, the upper free edge of which represents the vocal cords. Lig. vocale, vocal cords, front attached to the angle of the thyroid cartilage in close proximity to the same ligament of the opposite side, posterior to the processus vocalis of the arytenoid cartilage. The bunch consists of elastic fibers of a yellowish color that run parallel to each other.

The medial margin of the vocal cords is pointed and free, laterally and the ligament directly passes into the conus elasticus. Above the voice ligament and parallel to it lies a pair of ligament plexus, lig. vestibulare. It is named so because it limits the threshold of the larynx from below.

In addition to the ligaments, there are joints between the cartilages of the larynx in the places of adherence of the thyroid and arytenoid cartilages to the cricoid cartilage.

Between the lower horns of the thyroid cartilage and the cricoid-shaped joint, a joint joint is formed, art. cricothyroidea, with a transverse axis of rotation. The thyroid cartilage in this joint moves forward and backward, moving away or approaching the arytenoid cartilages, as a result of which the vocal cords, ligamentum vocale located between them, are stretched (when the thyroid cartilage is inclined forward), then relaxes.

Between the base of each arytenoid cartilage and cricoid, there are paired artt. cricoarytenoideae with a vertical axis, around which the arytenoid cartilage rotates to the sides. Sliding movements are also possible here - the approach and removal of the arytenoid cartilage in relation to each other.

For the function of voice formation of great importance are arytenoid cartilages, between the processes of which are stretched vocal cords. The free space between the vocal cords is called the glottis. Sound is formed by changing the tension of the vocal cords and narrowing or widening the glottis during the passage of air through it. The process of sound formation is controlled by a person consciously. Sound formation is also promoted by three groups of muscles - muscles that regulate the tension of the vocal cords, muscles that expand the vocal cavity and muscles that narrow it.

To what doctors to address for inspection of Gortani:

ENT

What diseases are associated with Gortanya:

• Laryngitis


• Acute obstructive laryngitis (croup)


• Laryngeal tuberculosis


• Epiglottite


• Tumor-like laryngeal formations


• Benign tumors of the larynx


• Malignant tumors of the larynx


• Cancer of the larynx


• Laryngeal burns


• Injuries of the larynx


• Laryngeal edema


• Chondroperichondritis of the larynx


• Pain in the larynx


• Chronic inflammatory diseases of the larynx


• Chronic laryngeal stenosis


• Acute stenosis of the larynx


• Foreign bodies of the larynx


• Chronic atrophic laryngitis


• Chronic catarrhal laryngitis


• Chronic hyperplastic laryngitis


• Acute catarrhal laryngitis


• Infiltrative laryngitis


• Lining laryngitis (false croup)

Anatomy of the human gyrus ventricle

The laryngeal ventricle 

The guttural ventricle is a pair of deepening of the laryngeal mucosa between the vestibule and the vocal folds.

[caption id="attachment_673" align="aligncenter" width="467"] human gyrus ventricle[/caption]

To what doctors to address for inspection of the Laryngeal ventricle:

• Otolaryngologist


• ENT

What diseases are associated with the laryngeal ventricle:

• Acute catarrhal laryngitis


• Infiltrative laryngitis


• Lining laryngitis (false croup)


• Larynx angina


• Laryngeal edema


• Chronic inflammatory diseases of the larynx


• Chronic catarrhal laryngitis


• Chronic hyperplastic laryngitis


• Chronic atrophic laryngitis


• Chondroperichondritis of the larynx


• Laryngeal burns


• Foreign bodies of the larynx


• Injuries of the larynx


• Chronic laryngeal stenosis


• Acute stenosis of the larynx


• Acute and chronic stenosis of the larynx

Anatomy of the Throat of a person

Throat

The throat is part of the neck in front of the spine. Through the throat go numerous vital blood vessels, nerves, esophagus, trachea, pharyngeal muscles. It has Adam's apple.

[caption id="attachment_670" align="aligncenter" width="550"] Anatomy of the Throat[/caption]

Which doctors to consult for a Throat examination:

ENT

What diseases are associated with the throat:

• Laryngitis


• Acute tonsillitis (tonsillitis)


• Streptococcal pharyngitis


• Pharyngitis


• Chronic pharyngitis


• Chronic tonsillitis


• Angina in infectious diseases


• Sore throat tonsillitis (adenoiditis)


• Retropharyngeal (retropharyngeal) abscess


• Paratonzillite


• Parapharyngeal (peripharyngeal) abscess


• Hypertrophy of the nasopharyngeal tonsil (adenoids)


• Hypertrophy of palatine tonsils


• Foreign bodies of pharynx


• Wounds and injuries of the pharynx

What tests and diagnostics must be done for the throat:

Endoscopy of the pharynx

Anatomy of the Human Vocal Process

The voice process

Vox appendage - anterior process on the basis of an arytenoid cartilage of the larynx; place of attachment of vocal cords and muscle.

[caption id="attachment_667" align="aligncenter" width="300"] vocal cords[/caption]

Which doctors should be contacted for the examination of the Voice Process:

Otolaryngologist

What diseases are associated with the voice process:

• Acute catarrhal laryngitis


• Infiltrative laryngitis


• Lining laryngitis (false croup)


• Larynx angina


• Laryngeal edema


• Chronic inflammatory diseases of the larynx


• Chronic catarrhal laryngitis


• Chronic hyperplastic laryngitis


• Chronic atrophic laryngitis


• Chondroperichondritis of the larynx


• Laryngeal burns


• Foreign bodies of the larynx


• Injuries of the larynx


• Chronic laryngeal stenosis


• Acute stenosis of the larynx


• Acute and chronic stenosis of the larynx

Anatomy of the Human Voice Device

The voice apparatus is the organ of speech (the second human signal system). The voice apparatus is located in the larynx and consists of two vocal cords, between which there is a voice gap. The tension of the vocal cords changes due to the contraction of the muscles attached to them, with the vocal chord widening or narrowing. The sound is formed from the vibration of the vocal cords, when the vocal cricle is narrowed.

To what doctors to address for examination of the Voice device:

• ENT

What diseases are associated with the Voice device:

• Acute catarrhal laryngitis


• Infiltrative laryngitis


• Lining laryngitis (false croup)


• Larynx angina


• Laryngeal edema


• Chronic inflammatory diseases of the larynx


• Chronic catarrhal laryngitis


• Chronic hyperplastic laryngitis


• Chronic atrophic laryngitis

Anatomy of a Person's Voice Gap

The voice gap is a horizontal slit less than 25 mm long in the middle of the larynx, bounded by two vocal folds and (in the posterior portion) by the medial surfaces of the arytenoid cartilages, passes into the trachea.

[caption id="attachment_658" align="aligncenter" width="300"] Anatomy of a Person's Voice Gap[/caption]

With vibration of the vocal cords, its dimensions change. In the glottis, a front large compartment is distinguished between the ligaments themselves and called the inter-membranous part, the pars intermembrane, and the posterior smaller, located between the vocal processes, the vascularis process, the arytenoid cartilage is the interchrift part, the pars intercartilaginous.

To what doctors to address for examination of a Voice gap:

• Otolaryngologist


• ENT

What diseases are associated with the Voice Slit:

• Acute catarrhal laryngitis


• Infiltrative laryngitis


• Lining laryngitis (false croup)


• Larynx angina


• Laryngeal edema


• Chronic inflammatory diseases of the larynx


• Chronic catarrhal laryngitis


• Chronic hyperplastic laryngitis


• Chronic atrophic laryngitis


• Chondroperichondritis of the larynx


• Laryngeal burns


• Foreign bodies of the larynx


• Injuries of the larynx


• Chronic laryngeal stenosis


• Acute stenosis of the larynx


• Acute and chronic stenosis of the larynx

Anatomy of the Human Vocal fold

The voice fold (Latin plica vocalis) is a fold of the laryngeal mucosa that protrudes into its cavity, containing a vocal cuff and a vocal muscle. Vocal folds start from the vocal appendages of the arytenoid cartilages and attach to the inner surface of the thyroid cartilage. Above the vocal folds, parallel to them are the folds of the vestibule (false vocal folds). In professional vocabulary (and in old manuals on speech therapy) speech therapists often use the term "vocal chords" or "ligaments" instead of "folds".

[caption id="attachment_651" align="aligncenter" width="750"] Human Vocal fold[/caption]

There are two types of vocal folds.

True vocal folds are two symmetrically located folds of the mucous membrane of the larynx, protruding into its cavity, containing the vocal cords and the vocal muscle. True vocal folds have a special muscular structure, different from the structure of other muscles: the bundles of elongated fibers go here in different mutually opposite directions, start at the edge of the muscle and terminate in its depth, as a result of which the true vocal folds can fluctuate both with their whole mass and one any part, for example, half, third, edges, etc.

False voice folds (vestibular folds, folds of the vestibule) are two folds of the mucous membrane that cover the submucosa and a small muscle bundle; Normally, false vocal folds take some part in closing and opening the glottis, but they move sluggishly and do not fit close to each other. False voice folds become important in the development of a false-lingual voice and guttural singing.

The false vocal slit (Latin rima vestibuli, vestibular slot, crevice slit) is the space between the vestibule of the larynx and its middle part, limited by the vestibules.

Diseases of the vocal cords.

Imagine that the vocal cords are strings. What will happen if the strings are weakened? That's right, they will not hesitate, and they can not be played. In acute inflammation of the larynx (laryngitis), the vocal cords may be involved in the process. The vocal cords become inflamed, increase in size, the vocal cracks decrease, and sometimes completely closes, the air from the nasopharynx does not enter the lungs and the person starts to choke. This formidable complication from the vocal cords often occurs suddenly in viral diseases, allergies, voice overexertion, inhalation of irritants and requires emergency medical care.

[caption id="attachment_652" align="aligncenter" width="368"] Human Vocal fold[/caption]

Therefore, with a sudden appearance of hoarseness of the voice, especially in children, you should immediately consult a doctor - an otolaryngologist. With an overload of vocal cords, chronic allergic diseases of the larynx, permanent inhalation of irritants, for example, tobacco smoke, constant swelling of the mucous membrane can occur in the region of the vocal cords, leading to hoarseness and changes in the timbre of the voice. With such symptoms, an immediate appeal to an otolaryngologist is necessary to exclude oncological diseases.

To what doctors to address for examination of a Voice fold:

The otolaryngologist (ENT)

What diseases are associated with the Voice fold:

• Acute catarrhal laryngitis


• Infiltrative laryngitis


• Lining laryngitis (false croup)


• Larynx angina


• Laryngeal edema


• Chronic inflammatory diseases of the larynx


• Chronic catarrhal laryngitis


• Chronic hyperplastic laryngitis


• Chronic atrophic laryngitis


• Chondroperichondritis of the larynx


• Laryngeal burns


• Foreign bodies of the larynx


• Injuries of the larynx


• Chronic laryngeal stenosis


• Acute stenosis of the larynx


• Acute and chronic stenosis of the larynx

 

Anatomy of the Human Pharynx

Pharynx, the pharynx, represents that part of the digestive tube and the airways, which is the connecting link between the cavity of the nose and mouth, on the one hand, and the esophagus and larynx, on the other. It extends from the base of the skull to the VI-VII cervical vertebrae. The inner space of the pharynx is the pharyngeal cavity, the cavitas pharyngis.

The pharynx is located behind the nasal and oral cavity and larynx, in front of the basilar part of the occipital bone and the upper cervical vertebrae. Accordingly, the organs located anterior to the pharynx, it can be divided into three parts: pars nasalis, pars oralis and pars laryngea.

• The upper wall of the pharynx, adjacent to the base of the skull, is called the vault, fornix pharyngis.


• Pars nasalis pharyngis, the nasal part, is functionally a purely respiratory department. Unlike the other parts of the pharynx, its walls do not collapse, since they are immovable.


• The front wall of the nasal department is occupied by the hoans.


• On the lateral walls is located on the funnel-shaped pharyngeal opening of the auditory tube (part of the middle ear), ostium pharyngeum tubae. Above and behind the opening of the tube is limited by a tubular roller, torus tubarius, which is obtained due to the protrusion of the cartilage of the auditory tube here.

[caption id="attachment_644" align="aligncenter" width="750"] Anatomy of the Human Pharynx[/caption]

On the boundary between the upper and the posterior walls of the pharynx, along the middle line is the accumulation of lymphoid tissue, tonsilla pharyngea s. adenoidea (hence - adenoids) (in an adult it is not noticeable). Another accumulation of lymphoid tissue, paired, is between the pharyngeal opening of the tube and the soft palate , tonsilla tubaria.

Thus, at the entrance to the pharynx there is an almost complete ring of lymphoid formations: the tongue almond, two palatine tonsils, two tubal and pharyngeal (lymphoepithelial ring described by NI Pirogov).

Pars oralis, the oral part, is the middle section of the pharynx, which in front is communicated through the pharynx, fauces, with the oral cavity; its posterior wall corresponds to the third cervical vertebra. According to the function, the oral part is mixed, since it crosses the digestive and respiratory tract. This cross was formed during the development of respiratory organs from the wall of the primary intestine. From the primary nosorotovoy bay formed nasal and oral cavity, with the nasal was located on top or as if dorsal to the oral, and the larynx, trachea and lungs originated from the ventral wall of the anterior gut. Therefore, the head of the digestive tract was found lying between the nasal cavity (from above and dorsally) and the respiratory tract (ventral), which is responsible for the intersection of the digestive and respiratory tract in the pharynx.

Pars laryngea, the guttural part, represents the lower section of the pharynx, located behind the larynx and extending from the entrance to the larynx to the entrance to the esophagus. On the front wall is the entrance to the larynx.

The basis of the pharyngeal wall is the fibrous membrane of the pharynx, fascia pharyngobasilaris, which is attached at the top to the bones of the base of the skull, is covered from the inside by the mucous membrane, and from the outside - by the muscular. The muscular membrane is in turn covered from the outside by a more thin layer of fibrous tissue that connects the pharyngeal wall with the surrounding organs, and at the top passes to m. buccinator and is called fascia buccopharyngea.

The mucous membrane of the nasal part of the pharynx is covered by the ciliated epithelium in accordance with the respiratory function of this part of the pharynx, in the lower sections of the epithelium the lamellar is flat. Here, the mucous membrane acquires a smooth surface, which helps slip the food lump when swallowed. This is also facilitated by the secret of the mucous glands embedded in it and the pharyngeal muscles located longitudinally (dilators) and circularly (narrowers).

[caption id="attachment_645" align="aligncenter" width="424"] Anatomy of the Human Pharynx[/caption]

The circular layer is much more pronounced and decomposes into three compressors arranged in 3 floors: the upper, m. constrictor pharyngis superior, medium, m. constrictor pharyngis medius and lower, m. constrictor pharyngis inferior.

Starting at various points: on the bones of the base of the skull (tuberculum pharyngeum of the occipital bone, processus pterygoideus wedge-shaped), on the lower jaw (linea mylohyoidea), on the root of the tongue, hyoid bone and cartilage of the larynx (thyroid and cricoid), the fibers of the muscles of each side go backwards and join together, forming a seam along the middle line of the pharynx, raphe pharyngis. The lower fibers of the lower throat compressors are closely related to the muscular fibers of the esophagus.

Longitudinal muscle fibers of the pharynx are part of two muscles:

• M. stylopharyngeus, a shillopharyngeal muscle, starts from the processus styloideus, is directed downward and terminates part of the wall of the pharynx, is partly attached to the upper edge of the thyroid cartilage.


• M. palatopharyngeus, palatine-pharyngeal muscle

[caption id="attachment_646" align="aligncenter" width="504"] Anatomy of the Human Pharynx[/caption]

Swallowing act. Since there is a cross in the pharynx of the respiratory and digestive tracts, there are special devices that separate the respiratory tract from the digestive tract during the act of swallowing. By contracting the muscles of the tongue, the food lump is pressed against the hard palate by the back of the tongue and is pushed through the pharynx. In this case, the soft palate is pulled upward (by contraction of mm. Levator veli palatini and tensor veli palatini) and approaches the posterior wall of the pharynx (contraction of m. Palatopharyngeus).

Thus, the nasal part of the pharynx (respiratory) is completely separated from the oral. Simultaneously, the muscles located above the hyoid bone, pull the larynx up, and the root of the tongue with the contraction m. hyoglossus goes down; he presses on the epiglottis, lowers the latter and thereby closes the entrance to the larynx (in the respiratory tract). Then there is a sequential contraction of the pharyngeal constrictors, as a result of which the food lump is pushed towards the esophagus. Longitudinal muscles of the pharynx function as lifters: they tighten the pharynx towards the food lump.

The pharynx nutrition occurs mainly from a. pharyngea ascendens and branches a. facialis and a. maxillaris of a. corotis externa. Venous blood flows into the plexus located above the muscular membrane of the pharynx, and then - along the vv. pharyngeae into the system v. jugularis interna. Outflow of lymph occurs in the nodi lymphatici cervicales profundi et retropharyngeales.

The pharynx is innervated from the nerve plexus - the plexus pharyngeus, formed by the branches nn. glossopharyngeus, vagus et tr. sympathicus. In this case, a sensible innervation is also performed with respect to n. glossopharyngeus and n. vagus; the throat muscles are innervated by n. vagus, with the exception of m. stylopharyngeus, which is supplied by n. glossopharyngeus.

To what doctors to address for examination of Pharynx:

• ENT


• Dentist

What diseases are associated with a pharynx:

• Laryngitis


• Acute tonsillitis (tonsillitis)


• Streptococcal pharyngitis


• Pharyngitis


• Chronic pharyngitis


• Chronic tonsillitis


• Angina in infectious diseases


• Sore throat tonsillitis (adenoiditis)


• Retropharyngeal (retropharyngeal) abscess


• Paratonzillite


• Parapharyngeal (peripharyngeal) abscess


• Hypertrophy of the nasopharyngeal tonsil (adenoids)


• Hypertrophy of palatine tonsils


• Foreign bodies of pharynx


• Wounds and injuries of the pharynx

What tests and diagnostics should be done for the pharynx:

Method of examination of the pharynx

Endoscopy of the pharynx

Anatomy of the Human Laryngeal Protrusion

Laryngeal Protrusion

Adam's apple, "Adam's apple" (Latin prominentia laryngea) is the anterior upper part of the thyroid cartilage protruding on the front surface of the neck , mostly in men.

[caption id="attachment_638" align="aligncenter" width="300"] Laryngeal Protrusion[/caption]

The name comes from the Turkic word Kadyk - solid, strong, serving. The name "Adam's apple" is associated with the folk legend of how Adam tried to swallow an apple from the tree of knowledge of good and evil, but it stuck in his throat . It is sometimes referred to as a symbol of sin. The laryngeal protrusion is formed by two plates of the thyroid cartilage, the angle between which is greater in women and children, less in men (which is why the muzzle of the larynx is more pronounced).

To what doctors to address for inspection of Laryngeal protrusion:

ENT

What diseases are associated with the laryngeal protrusion:

Injuries of the larynx

Chondroperichondritis of the larynx

What tests and diagnostics should be done for the laryngeal protrusion:

X-ray of the neck

MRI

CT

Complete Anatomy of the Bronchi of a person

What is the Bronchi?

Bronchis (bronchus) are called the branches of the respiratory throat (the so-called bronchial tree).

In the area of bifurcation, a protrusion of the wall - the spur (keel) , directed to the left to the left, protrudes from the bottom of the trachea .

The left bronchus departs from the bifurcation point almost at right angles, and the right bronchus is more oblique downward. Accidentally falling into the trachea foreign bodies due to this usually appear in the right bronchus, where they are found during the fluoroscopic examination.

What does the bronchi look like?

Below is the image of Bronchial tree of the right lung (roentgenogram) (according to Kraev, 1978):

[caption id="attachment_82" align="aligncenter" width="317"] bronchi respiratory system[/caption]

1 - trachea;
2 - the main bronchus;
3 - intermediate bronchus;
4 - upper lobe bronchus;
5 - lower lobe bronchus;
6 - segmental bronchus of the upper lobe;
7 - segmental bronchi of the middle lobe;
8 - segmental bronchi of the lower lobe

The main bronchus (first order), entering the gates of the lungs, is divided into the bronchi of the second, third and other orders, which, all decreasing in calibre, form a bronchial tree.

The right bronchus forms three branches, and the left bronchus - two. Each of the branches goes to the lobe of the lung. In the gates of the lungs, the main bronchus and its branches closely touch the arteries that enter the lungs, and with the veins emerging from them. All these tubular formations are surrounded by a dense connective tissue and form the root of the lung.

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Respiratory system

The bronchial tree includes the main bronchi - right and left, the lobar bronchi (1st order), zonal (2nd order), segmental and subsegmental (3, 4, 5 orders of magnitude), small (from 6th to 15th, th order) and finally, terminal bronchioles, followed by the respiratory departments of the lungs (whose purpose is to perform the gas exchange function).

The structure of the bronchi is not the same throughout the entire bronchial tree, although it has common features.

What is the function of the bronchi and bronchioles?

Bronchi provide air from the trachea to the alveoli and back, and also contribute to the purification of air from foreign impurities and their removal from the body. Large foreign bodies are removed from the bronchi with the help of a cough. And smaller (dust particles) or microorganisms trapped in the respiratory tract are removed with the help of oscillations of the cilia of epithelial cells, which ensure the advance of the bronchial secretion towards the trachea.

In a live patient with bronchoscopy (ie, when examining the trachea and bronchi with the aid of a bronchoscope through the larynx and trachea), the mucosa is greyish in colour; well visible cartilaginous rings. The angle at the place of division of the trachea into the bronchi, having the appearance of a ridge protruding between them, carina, should normally be located along the median line and freely move during respiration.

To what doctors to address for inspection Bronchitis:

• Pulmonologist


• Therapist


• Oncologist

What diseases are associated with Bronchitis:

• Bronchial asthma


• Bronchopulmonary dysplasia


• Bronchitis


• Cancer of the bronchi

What tests and diagnostics should be done for Bronchitis:

Methods of diagnosis, which are used to confirm bronchial diseases

Fluorography vs Radiography

 

 

Human Anatomy » Respiratory System in Detail

The human respiratory system is a set of organs that provide external respiration in the human body, or the exchange of gases between blood and the environment, and a number of other functions.

Respiratory System

Gas exchange is made easy and normally is aimed at absorbing oxygen from the inhaled air and releasing into the external environment of carbon dioxide formed in the body. In addition, the respiratory system is involved in such important functions as thermoregulation, voice formation, smell, humidification of the inhaled air. Pulmonary tissue also plays an important role in such processes as hormone synthesis, water-salt and lipid metabolism. In the abundantly developed vascular system of the lungs, blood is deposited. The respiratory system also provides mechanical and immune protection against environmental factors.

The main organs of the respiratory system are the lungs. The lungs are located in the chest cavity, surrounded by bones and muscles of the chest. Lungs provide oxygen to the body and remove from it a gaseous product of life - carbon dioxide. Atmospheric air enters the lungs and is removed from them due to a system of tubes called airways. The upper and lower respiratory tracts are distinguished. The transition of the upper respiratory tract to the lower ones takes place at the intersection of the digestive and respiratory systems in the upper part of the larynx. The system of the upper respiratory tract consists of the nose, nasopharynx and oropharynx, and also partially the oral cavity since it too can be used for breathing. The system of the lower respiratory tract consists of the larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli.

For the implementation of the respiratory act, an adaptation is required that ensures the flow of a jet of fresh air on the respiratory surface, i.e., the circulation of air. In this regard, in addition to the lungs, there are airways, namely: nasal cavity and pharynx (upper respiratory tract), then the larynx, trachea and bronchi (lower respiratory tract). A peculiarity of these ways is the construction of their walls from intractable tissues (bone and cartilaginous), due to which the walls do not collapse and the air, despite a sharp change of pressure from positive to negative, freely circulates with inspiration and expiration.

[caption id="attachment_72" align="aligncenter" width="907"] Respiratory System (Img Source: Wikipedia)[/caption]

The inhaled air passes to the larynx through the nasal cavity (or mouth) and pharynx.

For each breath into the lungs, about 500 ml of air is ingested. At the deepest inhalation, an additional 1500 ml can be inhaled. The volume of air passing through the lungs in 1 minute is called the minute volume of respiration. Normally it is 6-9 litres. At sportsmen at run increases to 25-30 l.

Related anatomical terms:

• Bronchi


• Laryngeal protrusion


• Pharynx


• Voice fold


• Glottis


• Voice device


• Vox appendage


• Throat


• Laryngeal Ventricle


• Larynx


• Diaphragm


• Adam's apple (Adam's apple)


• Lungs


• Epiglottis


• Nose


• Nasal septum


• Nasal cavity


• Nasopharynx


• Pleura


• Sub-voice cavity


• Laryngeal cavity


• Trachea